The 1week-of-physics-learning-tutorial from alperbek

Physics – natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.

What type of subject is physics?
Branches of physics
General concepts of physics
Glossary of physics
Books
20 Physicists Who Revolutionised Our Understanding of The World
List of important publications in physics
Videos

What type of subject is physics?

Physics can be described as all of the following:

An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals.
A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published.
- A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method.
  - A physical science – one that studies non-living systems.
  - A biological science – one that studies the role of physical processes in living organisms.

Branches of physics

Astronomy – studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).
- Astrodynamics – application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft.
- Astrometry – branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.
- Astrophysics – study of the physical aspects of celestial objects
- Celestial mechanics - the branch of theoretical astronomy that deals with the calculation of the motions of celestial objects such as planets.
- Extragalactic astronomy – branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy
- Galactic astronomy – study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents.
- Physical cosmology – study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution.
- Planetary science – scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them.
- Stellar astronomy – natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)
Atmospheric physics – study of the application of physics to the atmosphere
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics – study of how matter and light interact
- Optics – branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
Biophysics – interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics to study biological systems
- Neurophysics – branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system.
- Polymer physics – field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively.
- Quantum biology - application of quantum mechanics to biological phenomenon.
Chemical physics – branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.
Computational physics – study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists.
Condensed matter physics – study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter.
Electricity – the study of electrical phenomena.
Electromagnetism – branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles.
Geophysics – the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods
Magnetism – the study of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic field.
Mathematical physics – application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories.
Mechanics – branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.
- Aerodynamics – study of the motion of air.
- Biomechanics – study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics.
- Classical mechanics – one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces.
  - Kinematics – branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion.
    - Homeokinetics - the physics of complex, self-organizing systems
- Continuum mechanics – branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles.
- Dynamics – study of the causes of motion and changes in motion
- Fluid mechanics – study of fluids and the forces on them.
  - Fluid statics – study of fluids at rest
  - Fluid kinematics – study of fluids in motion
  - Fluid dynamics – study of the effect of forces on fluid motion
- Statics – branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.
Statistical mechanics – branch of physics which studies any physical system that has a large number of degrees of freedom.
Thermodynamics – branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work.
Nuclear physics – field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei.
Particle physics – branch of physics that studies the properties and interactions of the fundamental constituents of matter and energy.
Psychophysics – quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect.
Plasma physics – the study of plasma, a state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized.
Quantum physics – branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
Relativity – theory of physics which describes the relationship between space and time.
- General Relativity - the geometric theory of gravitation the current description of gravitation in modern physics.
- Special Relativity - a theory that describes the propagation of matter and light at high speeds.

Other
Agrophysics – study of physics applied to agroecosystems
- Soil physics – study of soil physical properties and processes.
Cryogenics – cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures.
Econophysics – interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics
Materials physics – use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as force, heat, light and mechanics.
Vehicle dynamics – dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles.

General concepts of physics

Basic principles of physics

Physics – branch of science that studies matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. Physics is one of the "fundamental sciences" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.) deal with systems that seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the physical laws of matter, energy and the fundamental forces of nature govern the interactions between particles and physical entities (such as planets, molecules, atoms or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of physics, which include some of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last millennium, include:

Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion, dynamics etc.
- Newton's laws of motion
- Mass, force and weight (Mass versus weight)
- Momentum and conservation of energy
- Gravity, theories of gravity
- Energy, work, and their relationship
- Motion, position, and energy
- Different forms of Energy, their inter-conversion and the inevitable loss of energy in the form of heat (Thermodynamics)
- Energy conservation, conversion, and transfer.
- Energy source the transfer of energy from one source to work in another.
Kinetic molecular theory
- Phases of matter and phase transitions
- Temperature and thermometers
- Energy and heat
- Heat flow: conduction, convection, and radiation
- The three laws of thermodynamics
The principles of waves and sound
The principles of electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetism
The principles, sources, and properties of light
Basic quantities
- Acceleration
- Electric charge
- Energy
- Entropy
- Force
- Length
- Mass
- Matter
- Momentum
- Potential energy
- Space
- Temperature
- Time
- Velocity

Gravity, light, physical system, physical observation, physical quantity, physical state, physical unit, physical theory, physical experiment

Theoretical concepts Mass–energy equivalence, particle, physical field, physical interaction, physical law, fundamental force, physical constant, wave

Measurement

Motion

Overview

Physics This is a list of the primary theories in physics, major subtopics, and concepts.

Theory	Major subtopics	Concepts
Classical mechanics	Newton's laws of motion, Lagrangian mechanics, Hamiltonian mechanics, kinematics, statics, dynamics, chaos theory, acoustics, fluid dynamics, continuum mechanics	Density, dimension, gravity, space, time, motion, length, position, velocity, acceleration, mass, momentum, force, energy, angular momentum, torque, conservation law, harmonic oscillator, wave, work, power
Electromagnetism	Electrostatics, electrodynamics, electricity, magnetism, Maxwell's equations, optics	Capacitance, electric charge, electric current, electrical conductivity, electric field, electric permittivity, electrical resistance, electromagnetic field, electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic radiation, Gaussian surface, magnetic field, magnetic flux, magnetic monopole, magnetic permeability
Theory of relativity	Special relativity, general relativity, Einstein field equations	Covariance, Einstein manifold, equivalence principle, four-momentum, four-vector, general principle of relativity, geodesic motion, gravity, gravitoelectromagnetism, inertial frame of reference, invariance, length contraction, Lorentzian manifold, Lorentz transformation, metric, Minkowski diagram, Minkowski space, principle of relativity, proper length, proper time, reference frame, rest energy, rest mass, relativity of simultaneity, spacetime, special principle of relativity, speed of light, stress–energy tensor, time dilation, twin paradox, world line
Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics	Heat engine, kinetic theory	Boltzmann's constant, conjugate variables, enthalpy, entropy, equation of state, equipartition theorem, first law of thermodynamics, free energy, heat, ideal gas law, internal energy, irreversible process, partition function, pressure, reversible process, second law of thermodynamics, spontaneous process, state function, statistical ensemble, temperature, thermodynamic equilibrium, thermodynamic potential, thermodynamic processes, thermodynamic state, thermodynamic system, third law of thermodynamics, viscosity, zeroth law of thermodynamics
Quantum mechanics	Path integral formulation, scattering theory, Schrödinger equation, quantum field theory, quantum statistical mechanics	Adiabatic approximation, correspondence principle, free particle, Hamiltonian, Hilbert space, identical particles, matrix mechanics, Planck's constant, operators, quanta, quantization, quantum entanglement, quantum harmonic oscillator, quantum number, quantum tunneling, Schrödinger's cat, Dirac equation, spin, wavefunction, wave mechanics, wave–particle duality, zero-point energy, Pauli exclusion principle, Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Concepts by field

Field	Subfields	Major theories	Concepts
Particle physics	Accelerator physics, nuclear physics, nuclear astrophysics, particle astrophysics, particle physics phenomenology	Standard Model, quantum field theory, quantum chromodynamics, electroweak theory, effective field theory, lattice field theory, lattice gauge theory, gauge theory, supersymmetry, Grand Unified Theory, superstring theory, M-theory	Fundamental force (gravitational, electromagnetic, weak, strong), elementary particle, spin, antimatter, spontaneous symmetry breaking, brane, string, quantum gravity, theory of everything, vacuum energy
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics	Atomic physics, molecular physics, atomic and molecular astrophysics, chemical physics, optics, photonics	Quantum optics, quantum chemistry, quantum information science	Atom, molecule, diffraction, electromagnetic radiation, laser, polarization, spectral line, Casimir effect
Condensed matter physics	Solid state physics, high pressure physics, low-temperature physics, nanoscale and mesoscopic physics, polymer physics	BCS theory, Bloch wave, Fermi gas, Fermi liquid, many-body theory	Phases (gas, liquid, solid, Bose–Einstein condensate, superconductor, superfluid), electrical conduction, magnetism, self-organization, spin, spontaneous symmetry breaking
Astrophysics	Cosmology, gravitation physics, high-energy astrophysics, planetary astrophysics, plasma physics, space physics, stellar astrophysics	Big Bang, Lambda-CDM model, cosmic inflation, general relativity, law of universal gravitation	Black hole, cosmic background radiation, cosmic string, cosmos, dark energy, dark matter, galaxy, gravity, gravitational radiation, gravitational singularity, planet, Solar System, star, supernova, universe

Glossary of physics

Contents:

A

ab initio: A mathematical model which seeks to describe atomic nuclei by solving the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation for all constituent nucleons and the forces that exist between them. Such methods yield precise results for very light nuclei but become more approximate for heavier nuclei.
Abbe number

Also called the V-number or constringence.

In optics and lens design, a measure of a transparent material's dispersion (a variation of refractive index versus wavelength). High values of V indicate low dispersion.
absolute electrode potential: In electrochemistry, the electrode potential of a metal measured with respect to a universal reference system (without any additional metal–solution interface).
absolute humidity: The ratio of the water vapor in a sample of air to the volume of the sample.
absolute magnitude: Is a measure of the luminosity of a celestial object, on a logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale. An object's absolute magnitude is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were viewed from a distance of exactly 10 parsecs (32.6 light-years), with no extinction (or dimming) of its light due to absorption by interstellar dust particles.
absolute motion
absolute pressure: Is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
absolute scale: Is a system of measurement that begins at a minimum, or zero point, and progresses in only one direction. An absolute scale differs from an arbitrary, or "relative," scale, which begins at some point selected by a person and can progress in both directions. An absolute scale begins at a natural minimum, leaving only one direction in which to progress.
absolute zero: The theoretical lowest possible temperature, understood by international agreement as equivalent to 0 Kelvin or −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F). More formally, it is the theoretical lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, at which enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum values and the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion.
absorption spectroscopy: Refers to spectroscopic techniques that measure the absorption of radiation, as a function of frequency or wavelength, due to its interaction with a sample. The sample absorbs energy, i.e., photons, from the radiating field. The intensity of the absorption varies as a function of frequency, and this variation is the absorption spectrum. Absorption spectroscopy is performed across the electromagnetic spectrum.
absorptivity
accelerating expansion of the universe: Is the observation that the expansion of the universe is such that the velocity at which a distant galaxy is receding from the observer is continuously increasing with time.
acceleration: The rate at which the velocity of a body changes with time.
acceleration due to gravity: The acceleration on an object caused by the force of gravitation.
accelerometer: An instrument used to measure the proper acceleration of a body irrespective of other forces.
acoustics: The branch of physics dealing with the production, transmission and effects of sound.
adhesion: The tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another. Contrast cohesion.
adiabatic cooling
adiabatic heating
adiabatic process: Occurs without transfer of heat or mass of substances between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred to the surroundings only as work.^[5]^[6] The adiabatic process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in thermodynamics.
aerodynamics: Is the study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields.
afocal system: In optics an afocal system (a system without focus) is an optical system that produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam, i.e. has an infinite effective focal length.^[7] This type of system can be created with a pair of optical elements where the distance between the elements is equal to the sum of each element's focal length (d = f₁+f₂).
air mass (astronomy): In astronomy, air mass or airmass is the "amount of air that one is looking through" when seeing a star or other celestial source below Earth's atmosphere. It is formulated as the integral of air density along the light ray.
air mass (meteorology): In meteorology, an air mass is a volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapor content. Air masses cover many hundreds or thousands of miles and adapt to the characteristics of the surface below them. They are classified according to latitude and their continental or maritime source regions. Colder air masses are termed polar or arctic, while warmer air masses are deemed tropical. Continental and superior air masses are dry while maritime and monsoon air masses are moist. Weather fronts separate air masses with different density (temperature and/or moisture) characteristics. Once an air mass moves away from its source region, underlying vegetation and water bodies can quickly modify its character. Classification schemes tackle an air mass' characteristics, as well as modification.
air mass coefficient: Defines the direct optical path length through the Earth's atmosphere, expressed as a ratio relative to the path length vertically upwards, i.e. at the zenith. The air mass coefficient can be used to help characterize the solar spectrum after solar radiation has traveled through the atmosphere.
albedo: The fraction of the total light incident on a reflecting surface, especially a celestial body, which is reflected back in all directions.
alloy: A chemical mixture of a metal with one or more other metals or other elements.
alpha decay: Or α-decay, is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus) and thereby transforms or 'decays' into a different atomic nucleus, with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 atom, which consists of two protons and two neutrons. It has a charge of +2 e and a mass of 4 u.
alpha particle (α)

A type of subatomic particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 ion. Alpha particles are classically produced in the process of radioactive alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways and given the same name.

alternating current (AC): A form of electric current in which the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction. Contrast direct current.
ammeter: An instrument that is used to measure electric current.
amorphous solid: A type of solid which does not have a definite geometrical shape. Or its non-crystalline solid.
ampere (A)

Often abbreviated as amp.

The SI base unit of electric current, defined as one coulomb of electric charge per second.
amplifier: An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) amp is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current). It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input. An amplifier is a circuit that has a power gain greater than one.
amplitude: The height of a wave measured from its center (normal) position.
angle of incidence: In geometric optics, the angle of incidence is the angle between a ray incident on a surface and the line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence, called the normal. The ray can be formed by any wave: optical, acoustic, microwave, X-ray, etc.
angle of reflection: Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves. The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected. Mirrors exhibit specular reflection.
ångström (Å): A unit of length primarily used to measure subatomic particles that is equal to 10⁻¹⁰ meters (one ten-billionth of a meter) or 0.1 nanometers.
angular acceleration: Is the time rate of change of angular velocity. In three dimensions, it is a pseudovector. In SI units, it is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s²), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α). Just like angular velocity, there are two types of angular acceleration: spin angular acceleration and orbital angular acceleration, representing the time rate of change of spin angular velocity and orbital angular velocity respectively. Unlike linear acceleration, angular acceleration need not be caused by a net external torque. For example, a figure skater can speed up her rotation (thereby obtaining an angular acceleration) simply by contracting her arms inwards, which involves no external torque.
angular displacement: Angular displacement of a body is the angle in radians (degrees, revolutions) through which a point revolves around a centre or line has been rotated in a specified sense about a specified axis.

angular frequency

Angular frequency ω (also referred to by the terms angular speed, radial frequency, circular frequency, orbital frequency, radian frequency, and pulsatance) is a scalar measure of rotation rate. It refers to the angular displacement per unit time (e.g., in rotation) or the rate of change of the phase of a sinusoidal waveform (e.g., in oscillations and waves), or as the rate of change of the argument of the sine function. Angular frequency (or angular speed) is the magnitude of the vector quantity angular velocity. The term angular frequency vector ${\vec {\omega }}$ is sometimes used as a synonym for the vector quantity angular velocity. One revolution is equal to 2π radians, hence

$\omega ={{2\pi } \over T}={2\pi f},$

where:

ω is the angular frequency or angular speed (measured in radians per second),

T is the period (measured in seconds),

f is the ordinary frequency (measured in hertz) (sometimes symbolised with ν).

angular momentum(Rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant.

angular velocityRefers to how fast an object rotates or revolves relative to another point, i.e. how fast the angular position or orientation of an object changes with time. There are two types of angular velocity: orbital angular velocity and spin angular velocity. Spin angular velocity refers to how fast a rigid body rotates with respect to its centre of rotation. Orbital angular velocity refers to how fast a rigid body's centre of rotation revolves about a fixed origin, i.e. the time rate of change of its angular position relative to the origin. In general, angular velocity is measured in angle per unit time, e.g. radians per second. The SI unit of angular velocity is expressed as radians/sec with the radian having a dimensionless value of unity, thus the SI units of angular velocity are listed as 1/sec. Angular velocity is usually represented by the symbol omega (ω, sometimes Ω). By convention, positive angular velocity indicates counter-clockwise rotation, while negative is clockwise.

anionA negatively charged ion. Contrast cation.

annihilationIn particle physics, annihilation is the process that occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons. The total energy and momentum of the initial pair are conserved in the process and distributed among a set of other particles in the final state. Antiparticles have exactly opposite additive quantum numbers from particles, so the sums of all quantum numbers of such an original pair are zero. Hence, any set of particles may be produced whose total quantum numbers are also zero as long as conservation of energy and conservation of momentum are obeyed.

anodeThe electrode through which a conventional electric current flows into a polarized electrical device; the direction of current flow is, by convention, opposite to the direction of electron flow, and so electrons flow out of the anode. In a galvanic cell, the anode is the negative terminal or pole which emits electrons toward the external part of an electrical circuit. However, in an electrolytic cell, the anode is the wire or plate having excess positive charge, so named because negatively charged anions tend to move towards it. Contrast cathode.

anti-gravity(Also known as non-gravitational field) is a theory of creating a place or object that is free from the force of gravity. It does not refer to the lack of weight under gravity experienced in free fall or orbit, or to balancing the force of gravity with some other force, such as electromagnetism or aerodynamic lift.

antimatter

antineutron Is the antiparticle of the neutron. It differs from the neutron only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign. It has the same mass as the neutron, and no net electric charge, but has opposite baryon number (+1 for neutron, −1 for the antineutron). This is because the antineutron is composed of antiquarks, while neutrons are composed of quarks. The antineutron consists of one up antiquark and two down antiquarks.

antiparticleIn particle physics, every type of particle has an associated antiparticle with the same mass but with opposite physical charges (such as electric charge). For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the antielectron (which is often referred to as positron). While the electron has a negative electric charge, the positron has a positive electric charge, and is produced naturally in certain types of radioactive decay. The opposite is also true: the antiparticle of the positron is the electron. Some particles, such as the photon, are their own antiparticle. Otherwise, for each pair of antiparticle partners, one is designated as normal matter (the kind all matter usually interacted with is made of), and the other (usually given the prefix "anti-") as antimatter.

antiproton

antiquarkFor every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle, known as an antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties (such as the electric charge) have equal magnitude but opposite sign.

arc length

Archimedes' principleStates that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid.

area moment of inertia

astronomical unit(Symbol: au, ua, or AU) is a unit of length, roughly the distance from Earth to the Sun. However, that distance varies as Earth orbits the Sun, from a maximum (aphelion) to a minimum (perihelion) and back again once a year. Originally conceived as the average of Earth's aphelion and perihelion, since 2012 it has been defined as exactly 149,597,870,700 metres, or about 150 million kilometres (93 million miles). The astronomical unit is used primarily for measuring distances within the Solar System or around other stars. It is also a fundamental component in the definition of another unit of astronomical length, the parsec.

astrophysicsThe branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the Universe, especially with the nature of celestial bodies rather than their positions or motions in space.

attenuation coefficient

atomA basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.

atomic line filter

atomic mass

atomic mass unit1/12 of the mass of an unbound neutral atom of carbon-12 in its nuclear and electronic ground state and at rest.

atomic number (Z)The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. It is most often used to classify elements within the periodic table.

atomic orbital

atomic packing factor

atomic physicsA branch of physics that studies atoms as isolated systems of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Compare nuclear physics.

atomic structure

atomic weight (A)The sum total of protons (or electrons) and neutrons within an atom.

audio frequency

average speed

Avogadro constant(6.02214086 × 10²³ mol⁻¹) In chemistry and physics, the Avogadro constant (named after the scientist Amedeo Avogadro) is the number of constituent particles, usually atoms or molecules, that are contained in the amount of substance given by one mole.

Avogadro's lawA physical law which states that volumes of gases which are equal to each other at the same temperature and pressure will contain equal numbers of molecules.

Avogadro's numberThe number of molecules in exactly 12g of carbon-12, equaling 6.022 x 10²³.

axionA hypothetical subatomic particle postulated to account for the rarity of processes that break charge-parity symmetry. It is very light, electrically neutral, and pseudoscalar.

azimuthal quantum number

B

Babinet's principle: A theorem concerning diffraction which states that the diffraction pattern from an opaque body is identical to that from a hole of the same size and shape except for the overall forward beam intensity.
background radiation: The ubiquitous ionising radiation to which the general population is exposed.
ballistics
Balmer series: Or Balmer lines, in atomic physics, is one of a set of six named series describing the spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom. The Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, an empirical equation discovered by Johann Balmer in 1885.
barometer: A scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure. Pressure tendency can forecast short-term changes in the weather.
baryon: A subatomic particle such as a proton or a neutron, made of (usually) three quarks. Nearly all matter you are likely to encounter is baryonic matter.
battery: A combination of two or more electrical cells which produces electricity.
beam: A structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending.Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but smaller structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed and analyzed in a similar fashion.
bending

Also known as flexure.

The behavior of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element.
bending moment: Is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam.
Bernoulli equation
Bernoulli's principle: In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.
Bessel function: Bessel functions, first defined by the mathematician Daniel Bernoulli and then generalized by Friedrich Bessel, are canonical solutions y(x) of Bessel's differential equation. $x^{2}{\frac {d^{2}y}{dx^{2}}}+x{\frac {dy}{dx}}+\left(x^{2}-\alpha ^{2}\right)y=0$
for an arbitrary complex number α, the order of the Bessel function. Although α and −α produce the same differential equation, it is conventional to define different Bessel functions for these two values in such a way that the Bessel functions are mostly smooth functions of α. The most important cases are when α is an integer or half-integer. Bessel functions for integer α are also known as cylinder functions or the cylindrical harmonics because they appear in the solution to Laplace's equation in cylindrical coordinates. Spherical Bessel functions with half-integer α are obtained when the Helmholtz equation is solved in spherical coordinates.

beta decay: In nuclear physics, beta decay (β-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus, transforming the original nuclide to its isobar.
beta particle: A high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by certain types of radioactive atomic nuclei.
Big Bang: The prevailing cosmological model that describes the early development of the Universe.
binding energy: The mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts. A bound system typically has a lower potential energy than the sum of its constituent parts.
binomial random variable
biocatalysis
biophysics: An interdisciplinary science using methods of and theories from physics to study biological systems.
black body: A hypothetical idealized physical body that completely absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. Perfect black bodies are imagined as substitutes for actual physical bodies in many theoretical discussions of thermodynamics, and the construction of nearly perfect black bodies in the real world remains a topic of interest for materials engineers. Contrast white body.
black-body radiation: The type of electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment, or emitted by a black body (an opaque and non-reflective body) held at constant, uniform temperature. The radiation has a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only on the temperature of the body.
block and tackle: A system of two or more pulleys with a rope or cable threaded between them, usually used to lift or pull heavy loads.
Bohr model
boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid undergoes a phase change into a gas; the vapour pressure of liquid and gas are equal at this temperature.
boiling point elevation: Describes the phenomenon that the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) will be higher when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a higher boiling point than a pure solvent. This happens whenever a non-volatile solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure solvent, such as water. The boiling point can be measured accurately using an ebullioscope.
Boltzmann constant: A physical constant relating the average kinetic energy of the particles in a gas with the temperature of the gas. It is the gas constant R divided by the Avogadro constant NA.
Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC)
boson: A type of particle that behaves according to Bose–Einstein statistics and possesses integer spin. Bosons include elementary particles such as photons, gluons, W and Z bosons, Higgs bosons, and the hypothetical graviton, as well as certain composite particles such as mesons and stable nuclides of even mass number. Bosons constitute one of two main classes of particles, the other being fermions. Unlike fermions, there is no limit to the number of bosons that can occupy the same quantum state.
Boyle's law: The volume of a given mass of a gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure.
Bra–ket notation
Bragg's law
bremsstrahlung: Radiation emitted by the acceleration of unbound charged particles.
Brewster's angle
british thermal unit (btu): An Imperial unit of energy defined as the amount of energy needed to heat one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit; 1 btu is equal to about 1055 joules. In scientific contexts the btu has largely been replaced by the SI unit of energy, the joule.
brittleness: The tendency of a material to break without significant plastic deformation when subjected to stress. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound.
Brownian motion

Also called pedesis.

The presumably random movement of particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or gas) resulting from their bombardment by the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid.
Bulk modulus: A measure of a substance's resistance to uniform compression defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease of the volume. Its base unit is the pascal.
buoyancy: An upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object.

C

calculus: A branch of mathematics that studies change and has two major sub-fields: differential calculus (concerning rates of change and slopes of curves), and integral calculus (concerning accumulation of quantities and the areas under and between curves). These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus.
capacitance: Is the ratio of the change in an electric charge in a system to the corresponding change in its electric potential. There are two closely related notions of capacitance: self capacitance and mutual capacitance. Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits self capacitance. A material with a large self capacitance holds more electric charge at a given voltage than one with low capacitance. The notion of mutual capacitance is particularly important for understanding the operations of the capacitor, one of the three elementary linear electronic components (along with resistors and inductors).
capacitive reactance: A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator, also known as a dielectric. Capacitive reactance is an opposition to the change of voltage across an element. Capacitive reactance X_C is inversely proportional to the signal frequency f (or angular frequency ω) and the capacitance C.
Carnot cycle: Is a theoretical ideal thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work, or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference by the application of work to the system. It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct.
Cartesian coordinate system: Is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a set of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular oriented lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis (plural axes) of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, at ordered pair (0, 0). The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin.
cathode: The electrode through which a conventional electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device; the direction of current flow is, by convention, opposite to the direction of electron flow, and so electrons flow into the cathode. In a galvanic cell, the cathode is the positive terminal or pole which accepts electrons flowing from the external part of an electrical circuit. However, in an electrolytic cell, the cathode is the wire or plate having excess negative charge, so named because positively charged cations tend to move towards it. Contrast anode.
cathode ray
cation: A positively charged ion. Contrast anion.
celestial mechanics
Celsius scale: A scale and unit of measurement of temperature, also known as Centigrade.
center of curvature
center of gravity: The point in a body around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanish. Near the surface of the earth, where the gravity acts downward as a parallel force field, the center of gravity and the center of mass are the same.
center of mass: A distribution of mass in space is the unique point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero.
center of pressure
centigrade: A scale and unit of measurement of temperature, also known as Celsius.
central force motion
central limit theorem
centrifugal force: The apparent outward force that draws a rotating body away from the centre of rotation. It is caused by the inertia of the body as the body's path is continually redirected.
centripetal force: A force which keeps a body moving with a uniform speed along a circular path and is directed along the radius towards the centre.
cGh physics
chain reaction: A sequence of reactions in which a reactive product or byproduct causes additional similar reactions to take place.
change of base rule
charge carrier
chemical physics: A branch of chemistry and physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics by investigating physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics.
chromatic aberration
circular motion
classical mechanics

Also called Newtonian mechanics.

A sub-field of mechanics concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the collective actions of a system of forces.
coefficient of friction
coherence
cohesion: The tendency of similar particles or surfaces to cling to one another. Contrast adhesion.
cold fusion
complex harmonic motion
composite particle
Compton scattering
concave lens
condensation point
condensed matter physics: A branch of physics that studies the physical properties of condensed phases of matter.
conservation of momentum
conservation law
constructive interference
continuous spectrum
continuum mechanics
convection: The transfer of heat by the actual transfer of matter.
convex lens
coulomb (C): The SI derived unit of electric charge, defined as the charge transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second.
Coulomb's law
converging lens
cosmic background radiation
covalent bond
creep
crest: The point on a wave with the maximum value or upward displacement within a cycle.
crest factor
critical angle
critical mass: The smallest amount of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear chain reaction.
Curie temperature
current density
current length
curvilinear motion
cyclotron: A type of particle accelerator in which charged particles accelerate outwards from the center along a spiral path.

D

Dalton's law
damped vibration
damping
Darcy–Weisbach equation
dark energy
dark matter
DC motor: A mechanically commutated electric motor powered by direct current.
decibel
definite integral
deflection: The degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance.
deformation: 1. (mechanics); 2. (engineering)
density

Also called mass density.

A physical property of a substance defined as its mass per unit volume.
derivative
desert
destructive interference
diamagnetism
dielectric
diffraction
direct current (DC)
dispersion
displacement (fluid): Occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid, pushing it out of the way and taking its place. The volume of the fluid displaced can then be measured, and from this the volume of the immersed object can be deduced (the volume of the immersed object will be exactly equal to the volume of the displaced fluid).
displacement (vector): The shortest distance from the initial to the final position of a point. Thus, it is the length of an imaginary straight path, typically distinct from the path actually travelled by.
distance: A numerical description of how far apart objects are.
drift velocity
Doppler effect: The change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic event) for an observer moving relative to its source.The received frequency is higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at the instant of passing by, and it is lower during the recession.
drag: Forces which act on a solid object in the direction of the relative fluid flow velocity. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which is nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend on velocity.
ductility: A solid material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
dynamics: The branch of classical mechanics that studies forces and torques and their effects on motion, as opposed to kinematics, which studies motion without reference to these forces.
dyne

E

econophysics
elastic collision
elastic energy
elastic instability
elastic modulus
elasticity: The tendency of a material to return to its original shape after it is deformed.
electric charge: A physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when near other electrically charged matter. There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative.
electric circuit: An electrical network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return path for the current.
electric current: A flow of electric charge through a conductive medium.
electric displacement field
electric field: The region of space surrounding electrically charged particles and time-varying magnetic fields. The electric field depicts the force exerted on other electrically charged objects by the electrically charged particle the field is surrounding.
electric field gradient
electric field intensity
electric generator
electric motor
electric potential
electric power: The rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit.
electrical conductor: Any material which contains movable electric charges and therefore can conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field.
electrical insulator: Any material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely and which therefore does not conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field.
electrical potential energy
electrical and electronics engineering
electrical network: An interconnection of electrical elements such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, voltage sources, current sources and switches.
electrical resistance: The opposition to the passage of an electric current through an electrical element.
electricity: The set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge.
electro-optic effect
electrochemical cell
electrodynamics
electrolytic cell
electromagnet: A type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current.
electromagnetic field

Also abbreviated EM field or EMF.

A physical field produced by moving electrically charged objects.
electromagnetic induction
electromagnetic radiation

Also abbreviated EM radiation or EMR.

A form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space.
electromagnetic spectrum
electromagnetic wave equation
electromagnetism
electromechanics
electromotive force

Also abbreviated emf.

The electrical intensity or "pressure" developed by a source of electrical energy such as a battery or generator and measured in volts. Any device that converts other forms of energy into electrical energy provides electromotive force as its output.
electron: A subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge.
electron capture
electron cloud
electron pair
electron paramagnetic resonance

Also called electron spin resonance (ESR) and electron magnetic resonance (EMR).

A method for studying materials with unpaired electrons which makes use of the Zeeman effect. It shares some basic principles with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
electronvolt (eV): A unit of energy equal to approximately 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ joule. By definition, it is the amount of energy gained by the charge of a single electron moved across an electric potential difference of one volt.
electronegativity: A chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself.
electronics: A field that deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.
electrostatics
electrostriction
elementary charge
elementary particle
emission spectrum
emissivity
energy: The ability to do work.
energy level
endothermic: An adjective used to refer to a process or reaction in which a system absorbs energy from its surroundings, usually in the form of heat but also in the form of light, electricity, or sound. Contrast exothermic.
engineering physics
enthalpy
entropy: A quantity which describes the randomness of a substance or system.
equilibrant force
equipartition
escape velocity: The velocity at which the kinetic energy plus the gravitational potential energy of an object is zero. It is the speed needed to "escape" from a gravitational field without further propulsion.
excited state
exothermic: An adjective used to refer to a process or reaction that releases energy from a system, usually in the form of heat but also in the form of light, electricity, or sound. Contrast endothermic.
experimental physics

F

farad
falling bodies: Objects that are moving towards a body with greater gravitational influence, such as a planet.
faraday
Faraday constant
Fermat's principle
Fermi surface
fermion: A type of particle that behaves according to Fermi–Dirac statistics, obeys the Pauli exclusion principle, and possesses half-integer spin. Fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as all composite particles made of an odd number of these (such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei). Fermions constitute one of two main classes of particles, the other being bosons.
ferrimagnetism
ferromagnetism
field line
FIRST: An organization founded by inventor Dean Kamen in 1989 in order to develop ways to inspire students in engineering and technology fields.
first law of thermodynamics
fission: Either a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei), often producing free neutrons and photons (in the form of gamma rays), and releasing a, relatively, very large amount of energy.
flavour
fluid
fluid mechanics
fluid physics
fluid statics
fluorescence
flux
flux density
focal length
focus
force (F): Any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of a physical body. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. The SI unit used to measure force is the newton.
force carrier
frame of reference
Fraunhofer lines
free body diagram
frequency
frequency modulation
free fall: Any motion of a body where its own weight is the only force acting upon it.
freezing point: The temperature at which a substance changes state from liquid to solid.
friction
function
fundamental forces

Also called fundamental interactions.

fundamental frequency
fundamental theorem of calculus
fusion: A nuclear reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei join together, or "fuse", to form a single heavier nucleus.

G

gamma ray: A form of electromagnetic radiation of high frequency and therefore high energy.
gas
general relativity
geophysics
gluon
Graham's law of diffusion
gravitation

Also called gravity.

A natural phenomenon by which physical bodies attract each other with a force proportional to their masses.
gravitational constant (G)

Also called the universal gravitational constant and Newton's constant.

A physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational force between two bodies.
gravitational energy: The potential energy associated with the gravitational field.
gravitational field: A model used to explain the influence that a massive body extends into the space around itself, producing a force on another massive body. Thus, a gravitational field is used to explain gravitational phenomena. It is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg).
gravitational potential: The gravitational potential at a location is equal to the work (energy transferred) per unit mass that is done by the force of gravity to move an object to a fixed reference location.
gravitational wave: A ripple in the curvature of spacetime that propagates as a wave and is generated in certain gravitational interactions, travelling outward from their source.
graviton
gravity: See gravitation.
ground
ground reaction force
ground state
group velocity

H

hadron
half-life: The time required for a quantity to fall to half its value as measured at the beginning of the time period. In physics, half-life typically refers to a property of radioactive decay, but may be refer to any quantity which follows an exponential decay.
Hamilton's principle
Hamiltonian mechanics
harmonic mean
heat: A form of energy transferred from one body to another by thermal interaction.
heat transfer
Helmholtz free energy
Henderson–Hasselbalch equation
Henry's law
hertz: The SI unit of frequency defined as the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon.
Higgs boson
homeokinetics: The physics of complex, self-organizing systems.
horsepower
Huygens–Fresnel principle
hydrostatics

I

ice point: A physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a liquid to a solid.
impedance: The measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current when a voltage is applied.
indefinite integral
inductance
infrasound
inertia: The resistance of any physical object to a change in its state of motion or rest, or the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion.
inductive reactance
integral
integral transform
International System of Units: The International System of Units (abbreviated SI) is the modern form of the metric system. It comprises a system of units of measurement devised around seven base units and the convenience of the number ten.
invariant mass
ion: An atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom a net positive or negative electric charge.
ionic bond: A type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions.
ionization: The process of converting an atom or molecule into an ion by adding or removing charged particles such as electrons or other ions.
ionization chamber
ionizing radiation
isotope: A variant of a particular chemical element. While all isotopes of a given element share the same number of protons, each isotope differs from the others in its number of neutrons.

J

Josephson effect
joule: A derived unit of energy, work, or amount of heat in the International System of Units.

K

Kelvin: A scale and unit of measurement of temperature. The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale which uses absolute zero as its null point.
kinematics: The branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion. The study of kinematics is often referred to as the "geometry of motion".
kinetic energy: The energy that a physical body possesses due to its motion, defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. The body continues to maintain this kinetic energy unless its velocity changes. Contrast potential energy.
Kirchhoff's circuit laws: Two approximate equalities that deal with the current and voltage in electrical circuits.also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws (see also Kirchhoff's laws for other meanings of that term).
Kirchhoff's equations: In fluid dynamics, the Kirchhoff equations describe the motion of a rigid body in an ideal fluid.

L

Lagrangian mechanics
laminar flow

Also called streamline flow.

Occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers with no disruption between the layers.
Laplace transform
Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector

Also abbreviated LRL vector.

A vector used chiefly to describe the shape and orientation of the orbit of one astronomical body around another, such as a planet revolving around a star. For two bodies interacting by Newtonian gravity, the LRL vector is a constant of motion, meaning that it is the same no matter where it is calculated on the orbit; equivalently, the LRL vector is said to be conserved.
laser
law of universal gravitation
LC circuit
Lenz's law
lepton: An elementary particle which does not undergo strong interactions but is subject to the Pauli exclusion principle. Two main classes of leptons exist: charged leptons (also known as the electron-like leptons) and neutral leptons (better known as neutrinos).
lever: A type of machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge or fulcrum; one of six classical simple machines.
light: A form of electromagnetic radiation that occupies a certain range of wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum. In physics, the term sometimes refers collectively to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, in which case light includes gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves, but in common usage "light" more often refers specifically to visible light.
linear actuator: A form of motor that generates a linear movement directly.
linear algebra: The branch of mathematics concerning vector spaces, often finite or countably infinite dimensional, as well as linear mappings between such spaces.
line of force
linear elasticity: The mathematical study of how solid objects deform and become internally stressed due to prescribed loading conditions. Linear elasticity is a simplification of the more general nonlinear theory of elasticity and is a branch of continuum mechanics.
Liouville's theorem: Phase space volume is conserved.
liquid: One of four classical states of matter having a definite volume but no fixed shape.
liquid crystal (LC): A matter in a state that has properties between those of a conventional liquid and those of a solid crystal. For instance, an LC may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way.
longitudinal wave

M

M-theory: An extension of string theory that attempts to unify seemingly contradictory mathematical formulations and which identifies 11 dimensions.
Mach number: A dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of the speed of an object moving through a fluid to the local speed of sound.
machine: Any powered tool consisting of one or more parts that is constructed to achieve a particular goal. Machines are usually powered by mechanical, chemical, thermal or electrical means, and are frequently motorised.
machine element: An elementary component of a machine. There are three basic types: structural components, mechanisms and control components.
Maclaurin series: A representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values of the function's derivatives at a single point.
magnetic field: A mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field.
magnetism: A property of materials that respond to an applied magnetic field.
magnetostatics
mass
mass balance

Also called material balance.

An application of the law of conservation of mass to the analysis of physical systems.
mass density: See density.
mass flux: The rate of mass flow per unit area. The common symbols are j, J, φ, or Φ, sometimes with subscript m to indicate mass is the flowing quantity. Its SI units are kg s⁻¹ m⁻².
mass moment of inertia: A property of a distribution of mass in space that measures its resistance to rotational acceleration about an axis.
mass number

Also called atomic mass number or nucleon number.

The total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus.
mass spectrometry
material properties
materials science: An interdisciplinary field incorporating elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering that is concerned with the design and discovery of new materials, particularly solids.
mathematical physics: The application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories.
mathematics: The abstract study of topics encompassing quantity, structure, space, change, and other properties.
matrix: A rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions arranged in rows and columns. The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries.
matter: Any substance (often a particle) that has rest mass and (usually) also volume.
Maxwell's equations: A set of partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamics, classical optics, and electric circuits. Maxwell's equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and currents.
measure of central tendency: A term which relates to the way in which quantitative data tend to cluster around some value. A measure of central tendency is any of a number of ways of specifying this "central value".
mechanical energy
mechanical filter
mechanical equilibrium
mechanical wave
mechanics: The branch of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.
melting

Also called fusion.

A physical process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid to a liquid.
meson: A type of hadronic subatomic particle composed of one quark and one antiquark bound together by the strong interaction. All mesons are unstable, with the longest-lived lasting for only a few hundredths of a microsecond.
modulus of elasticity: The mathematical description of an object's or substance's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to it. The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve in the elastic deformation region. As such, a stiffer material will have a higher elastic modulus.
molar concentration
molar mass: A physical property of matter defined as the mass of a given substance divided by the amount of substance and expressed in grams per mole.
molecule: An electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their lack of electrical charge.
molecular physics: A branch of physics that studies the physical properties of molecules and the chemical bonds between atoms as well as their molecular dynamics. It is closely related to atomic physics and overlaps greatly with theoretical chemistry, physical chemistry and chemical physics.
moment
moment of inertia: A property of a distribution of mass in space that measures its resistance to rotational acceleration about an axis.
monochromatic light
motion: Any change in the position of an object over time. Motion can be mathematically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, speed, acceleration, and momentum, and is observed by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the change in an object's position relative to that frame. An object's motion cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force.
muon: An elementary particle, technically classified as a lepton, that is similar to the electron, with unitary negative electric charge (−1) and a spin of 1⁄2. Muons are not believed to have any sub-structure.

N

nanoengineering: The practice of engineering on the nanoscale. Nanoengineering is largely a synonym for nanotechnology, but emphasizes the applied rather than the pure science aspects of the field.
nanotechnology

Also abbreviated as nanotech.

The manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. A more generalized description of nanotechnology is "the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers".
Navier–Stokes equations
neurophysics
neutrino: A type of electrically neutral subatomic particle denoted by the Greek letter ν (nu). All evidence suggests that neutrinos have mass but that their mass is tiny even by the standards of subatomic particles. Their mass has never been measured accurately.
neutron
neutron cross-section
newton (N)
Newton's laws of motion: A set of three physical laws which describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and its motion due to those forces. Together they form the basis for classical or Newtonian mechanics.
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Newtonian fluid
Newtonian mechanics
normal force
nth root
nuclear force
nuclear physics: The branch of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei.
nuclear reaction
nuclear transmutation
nucleon: Either a proton or a neutron in its role as a component of an atomic nucleus.
nucleus
nuclide

Also spelled nucleide.

An atomic species characterized by the specific composition of its nucleus, i.e. by its number of protons, its number of neutrons, and its nuclear energy state.

O

Ohm: The SI derived unit of electrical resistance.
Ohm's law: States that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points.
optical tweezers: An optomechanical device used for the capture, analysis and manipulation of dielectric objects or particles, which operates via the application of force by the electric field of light.
optically detected magnetic resonance: An optical technique for the initialisation and readout of quantum spin in some crystal defects.
optics: The branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light; however, because light is one of several forms of electromagnetic radiation, other forms such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties.

P

paraffin
parallel circuit
parity: 1. (mathematics); 2. (physics)
particle
particle accelerator
particle displacement
particle physics: A branch of physics that studies the nature of particles, which are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter and radiation.
Pascal's law: A principle in fluid mechanics which states that pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the initial pressure variations remain the same.
Pauli exclusion principle
pendulum
periodic table of the elements

Also simply called the periodic table.

A tabular display of the chemical elements organised on the basis of their atomic numbers, electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties. Elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons).
phase (matter)
phase (waves)
phase equilibrium
phenomenology
phosphorescence
photoelectric effect
photon: An elementary particle, the quantum of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force.
photonics
physical chemistry: The study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of laws and concepts of physics.
physical constant
physical quantity
physics: The natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.
piezoelectricity
pion
Planck constant (h)

Also called Planck's constant.

A physical constant that is the quantum of action in quantum mechanics.
Planck units
Planck's law
plasma
plasma physics
plasticity
pneumatics: The study and control of mechanical force and movement generated by the application of compressed gas.
positron
potential energy
power
pressure: The ratio of force to the area over which that force is distributed.
probability: A measure of the expectation that an event will occur or that a statement is true. Probabilities are given a value between 0 (will not occur) and 1 (will occur). The higher the probability of an event, the more certain one can be that the event will occur.
probability distribution
probability theory
proton
psi particle
pulley: A wheel on an axle that is designed to support movement of a cable or belt along its circumference; one of six classical simple machines. Pulleys are used in a variety of ways to lift loads, apply forces, and transmit power.
pulse
pulse wave

Q

quantization
quantum
quantum chromodynamics
quantum electrodynamics: The relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved. QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism, giving a complete account of matter and light interaction.
quantum field theory: A theoretical framework for constructing quantum mechanical models of subatomic particles in particle physics and quasiparticles in condensed matter physics.
quantum gravity
quantum mechanics: A branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena at microscopic scales, where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. Quantum mechanics departs from classical mechanics primarily at the quantum realm of atomic and subatomic length scales. Quantum mechanics provides a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter.
quantum number
quantum physics
quantum state
quark: An elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.
quasiparticle

R

radiant energy
radiation
radioactive decay
radionuclide

Also called a radioactive nuclide, radioisotope, or radioactive isotope.

Any nuclide possessing excess nuclear energy to the point that it is unstable. Such excess energy is emitted through any of several processes of radioactive decay, resulting in a stable nuclide or sometimes another unstable radionuclide which can then undergo further decay. Certain radionuclides can occur naturally; many others can be produced artificially in nuclear reactors, cyclotrons, particle accelerators, or radionuclide generators.
radius of curvature
redshift: A phenomenon which occurs when light seen coming from an object that is moving away is proportionally increased in wavelength or "shifted" to the red end of the visible light spectrum.
refraction: The change in direction of a wave as it passes from one transmission medium to another or as a result of a gradual change in the medium. Though most commonly used in the context of refraction of light, other waves such as sound waves and fluid waves also experience refraction.
refractive index
relative atomic mass
relativistic mechanics
rigid body: An idealization of a solid body in which deformation is neglected. In other words, the distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time regardless of the external forces exerted on it. Even though such an object cannot physically exist due to relativity, objects can normally be assumed to be perfectly rigid if they are not moving near the speed of light.
rotational energy

Also called angular kinetic energy.

The kinetic energy due to the rotation of an object and forms part of its total kinetic energy.
rotational speed

Also called speed of revolution.

The number of complete rotations or revolutions a rotating body makes per unit time.
Rydberg formula: A formula used in atomic physics to describe the wavelengths of spectral lines of many chemical elements.

S

scalar: Any simple physical quantity that can be described by a single number (as opposed to vectors, tensors, etc., which are described by several numbers such as magnitude and direction) and is unchanged by coordinate system rotations or translations (in Newtonian mechanics) or by Lorentz transformations or central-time translations (in relativity).
scattering: The general physical process by which some forms of radiation, such as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a straight trajectory by one or more localised non-uniformities in the medium through which they pass.
science: A systematic enterprise that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
screw: A mechanism that converts rotational motion to linear motion, and a torque (rotational force) to a linear force; one of six classical simple machines.
second law of thermodynamics
Seebeck effect
series circuit
shadow matter
shear modulus

Also called modulus of rigidity.

shear strength
shear stress
shortwave radiation
Schrödinger equation: A mathematical equation which describes the time evolution of wave functions in quantum mechanics.
simple harmonic motion
simple machine: A mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force. In general, a set of six classical simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists drawing from Greek texts on technology are collectively defined as the simplest mechanisms that can provide mechanical advantage (also called leverage).
siphon: A tube in an inverted U shape that causes a liquid to flow uphill without pumps, powered by the fall of the liquid as it flows down the tube under the pull of gravity. The term may also more generally refer to a wide variety of devices involving the flow of liquids through tubes.
Snell's law
solar cell
solid
solid mechanics
solid-state physics
solubility: The tendency of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (called a solute) to dissolve in another solid, liquid, or gaseous substance (called a solvent) to form a homogeneous solution of the solute in the solvent. The solubility of a solute fundamentally depends on the specific solvent as well as on temperature and pressure.
sound: A mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas and composed of frequencies within the range of human hearing.
special relativity
specific activity
speed
speed of light (c): A universal physical constant defined as exactly 299,792,458 metres per second, a figure that is exact because the length of the metre is defined from this constant and the international standard for time. When not otherwise qualified, the term "speed of light" usually refers to the speed of light in a vacuum as opposed to the speed of light through some physical medium.
speed of sound
spherical aberration
spin quantum number
stable isotope ratio
stable nuclide: Any nuclide that is not radioactive and does not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay, as opposed to a radionuclide. When such nuclides are referred to in relation to specific elements, they are usually termed stable isotopes.
standard atomic weight
Standard Model: The theory of particle physics which describes three of the four known fundamental forces (the electromagnetic force, the weak force, and the strong force, but not the gravitational force) and classifies all known elementary particles.
standing wave
state of matter
statics: The branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force and torque, or "moment") on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.
statistical mechanics
stiffness: The rigidity of an object — the extent to which it resists deformation in response to an applied force.
strain: The transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration.[1] A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body.
strain hardening
strength of materials
stress: 1. An applied force or system of forces that tends to strain or deform a physical body.; 2. A measure of the internal forces acting within a deformable body.; 3. A quantitative measure of the average force per unit area of a surface within a body on which internal forces act.
stress–strain curve
string duality
string theory
structural load
subatomic particle: Any particle that is smaller than an atom.
sublimation: The process of transformation directly from the solid phase to the gas phase without passing through an intermediate liquid phase. Sublimation is an endothermic phase transition that occurs at temperatures and pressures below a substance's triple point in its phase diagram.
superconductivity
superconductor: A phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature.
superhard material
superposition principle
supersymmetry (SUSY)
surface tension

T

temperature: A physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold.
tensile modulus
tensile strength
tesla (T)
test particle
theoretical physics
theory of everything
theory of relativity
thermal conduction
thermal equilibrium: A state in which there is no net flow of thermal energy between two physical systems when the systems are connected by a path permeable to heat. A system may also be said to be in thermal equilibrium with itself if the temperature within the system is spatially and temporally uniform. Systems in thermodynamic equilibrium are always in thermal equilibrium, but the converse is not always true.
thermal radiation
thermionic emission
thermodynamic equilibrium
thermodynamic free energy
thermodynamics
thermometer: An instrument used to measure temperature.
third law of thermodynamics
threshold frequency
torque

Also called moment or moment of force.

The tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an object.
total internal reflection
toughness: The ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing. Material toughness is defined as the amount of energy per unit volume that a material can absorb before rupturing. It is also defined as the resistance to fracture of a material when stressed.
trajectory: The path that a moving object follows through space as a function of time.
transducer
transmission medium
transverse wave
trigonometry: A branch of mathematics that studies triangles and the relationships between their sides and the angles between these sides.
trimean
triple point: The temperature and pressure at which the three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of a given substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium.
truncated mean

U

uncertainty principle: Any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, such as position x and momentum p, can be known simultaneously.
uniform motion
uniform circular motion
unit vector
utility frequency: The frequency of the oscillations of alternating current (AC) in an electric power grid transmitted from a power plant to the end-user.

V

vacuum: An area of space which contains no matter.
valence electron: An electron that is associated with an atom and can participate in the formation of a chemical bond.
valence shell: The outermost electron shell of an atom.
valley of stability
Van de Graaff generator
variable capacitor
variable resistor
vector: Any quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
vector space: A mathematical structure formed by a collection of elements called vectors, which may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers called scalars.
velocity
virtual image
virtual particle
viscoelasticity
viscosity
visible light: A form of electromagnetic radiation generally defined as the range of wavelengths visible to the average human eye.
volt (V): The SI derived unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force, defined as the difference in electric potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those two points.
Volta potential
voltage
voltmeter: An instrument used for measuring the difference in electrical potential between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit.
volt per meter
volume

W

W and Z bosons
watt (W): A derived unit of power in the International System of Units (SI) defined as one joule per second. The watt measures the rate of energy conversion or transfer.
wave: A disturbance or oscillation that travels through spacetime accompanied by a transfer of energy.
wave equation
wave function
wave function collapse
wave–particle duality
wavelength: A measure of the distance traversed by a single spatial period of a sinusoidal wave, i.e. the distance over which the wave's shape repeats.
weak interaction

Also called the weak force or weak nuclear force.

One of the four fundamental forces of nature, along with the strong nuclear force, electromagnetism, and gravitation. It is responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles and initiates the process known as hydrogen fusion in stars.
weber (Wb)
wedge: A triangular round tool in the form a compound and portable inclined plane; one of six classical simple machines.
weight
wheel and axle: A wheel attached to an axle so that these two parts rotate together in which a force is transferred from one to the other; one of six classical simple machines.
white body: A hypothetical idealized physical body that reflects all incident electromagnetic radiation completely and uniformly in all directions; the opposite of a black body.
wind: The flow of gases on a large scale.
wind shear

Also called wind gradient.

A difference in wind speed and direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. Wind shear can be broken down into vertical and horizontal components, with horizontal wind shear seen across fronts and near the coast, and vertical shear typically near the surface, though also at higher levels in the atmosphere.
work
work function

X

X-ray: A high-energy photon (between 100 eV and 100 keV) with a wavelength shorter than that of ultraviolet radiation and longer than that of gamma radiation.

Y

Young’s modulus: A measure of the stiffness of a solid material which defines the relationship between mechanical stress and strain.

Z

Zeeman effect: The effect of splitting a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static magnetic field by the lifting of degeneracy in electronic states.

Books

20 Physicists Who Revolutionised Our Understanding of The World

[1] Galileo Galilei

Birth: Feb. 15, 1564, Pisa [Italy]

Death: Jan. 8, 1642, Arcetri, near Florence

Known for: the New Science

Publications:

[2] Sir Isaac Newton

Birth: Dec. 25, 1642 [Jan. 4, 1643, New Style], Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England

Death: March 20 [March 31], 1727, London

Known for: the Newtonian Revolution

Publications:

[3] Michael Faraday

Birth: Sept. 22, 1791, Newington, Surrey, England

Death: Aug. 25, 1867, Hampton Court

Known for: the Classical Field Theory

Publications:

[4] James Clerk Maxwell

Birth: June 13, 1831, Edinburgh, Scotland

Death: Nov. 5, 1879, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England

Known for: the Electromagnetic Field

Publications:

[5] Wilhelm Röntgen

Birth: 27 March 1845, Lennep, Prussia, German Confederation

Death: 10 February 1923 (aged 77), Munich, Bavaria, Germany

Known for: Discovery of X-rays

[6] Marie Curie

Birth: Nov. 7, 1867, Warsaw, Poland, Russian Empire

Death: July 4, 1934, near Sallanches, France

Known for: Radioactivity

Publications:

Radium and the New Concepts in Chemistry [Nobel Lecture]

[7] Joseph J. Thomson

Birth: December 18, 1856, Cheetham Hill, Manchester, Lancashire, England, United Kingdom

Death: August 30, 1940, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England, UK

Known for: the Discovery of the Electron

Publications:

[8] Max Planck

Birth: April 23, 1858, Kiel, Schleswig [Germany]

Death: Oct. 4, 1947, Göttingen, West Germany

Known for: the Quanta

Publications:

[9] Albert Einstein

Birth: March 14, 1879, Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany

Death: April 18, 1955, Princeton, N.J., U.S.

Known for: Twentieth-Century Science

Publications:

[10] Ernest Rutherford

Birth: Aug. 30, 1871, Spring Grove, N.Z.

Death: Oct. 19, 1937, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England

Known for: the Structure of the Atom

Publications:

[11] Niels Bohr

Birth: Oct. 7, 1885, Copenhagen, Denmark

Death: Nov. 18, 1962, Copenhagen

Known for: the Atom

Publications:

[12] Wolfgang Pauli

Birth: 25 April 1900, Vienna, Austria-Hungary

Death: 15 December 1958 (aged 58), Zurich, Switzerland

Known for: the work on spin theory and quantum theory, as well as his discovery of the 1925 Pauli exclusion principle.

Publications:

[13] Erwin Schrodinger

Birth: Aug. 12, 1887, Vienna, Austria

Death: Jan. 4, 1961, Vienna

Known for: Wave Mechanics

Publications:

[14] Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac

Birth: Aug. 8, 1902, Bristol, Gloucestershire, England

Death: Oct. 20, 1984, Tallahassee, Florida, USA

Known for: Quantum Electrodynamics

Publications:

[15] Werner Heisenberg

Birth: December, 1901, Würzburg, Bavaria, German Empire

Death: 1 February 1976, Munich, Bavaria, West Germany

Known for: Quantum Theory

Publications:

[16] Enrico Fermi

Birth: Sept. 29, 1901, Rome, Italy

Death: Nov. 28, 1954, Chicago, Ill., U.S.

Known for: Statistical mechanics

Publications:

[17] J. Robert Oppenheimer

Birth: April 22, 1904, New York, N.Y., U.S.

Death: Feb. 18, 1967, Princeton, N.J.

Known for: the Atomic Era

Publications:

[18] Richard P. Feynman

Birth: May 11, 1918, New York, N.Y., U.S.

Death: Feb. 15, 1988, Los Angeles, California

Known for: Quantum Electrodynamics

Publications:

[19] Murray Gell-Mann

Birth: September 15, 1929, Manhattan, New York City, U.S.

Death: May 24, 2019 (aged 89), Santa Fe, New Mexico, U.S.

Known for: Quark Hypothesis

Publications:

[20] Vera Rubin

Birth: July 23, 1928, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Death: December 25, 2016 (aged 88), Princeton, New Jersey

Known for: Galaxy rotation problem, dark matter, Rubin–Ford effect

Publications:

List of important publications in physics

Videos

Quantum Physics (Prof. Graeme Ackland)

Lecture Notes

Section 1: ( PDF ) Summary of things you should already know
Section 2: ( PDF ) Review: Time-Independent Non-degenerate Perturbation Theory
Section 3: ( PDF ) Dealing with Degeneracy
Section 4: ( PDF ) Degeneracy, Symmetry and Conservation Laws
Section 5: ( PDF ) Time--dependence
Section 6: ( PDF ) Two state systems
Section 7: ( PDF ) Hydrogen ion and Covalent Bonding
Section 8: ( PDF ) The Variational Principle
Section 9: ( PDF ) Indistinguishable Particles and Exchange
Section 10: ( PDF ) Self-consistent field theory
Section 11: ( PDF ) Fundamentals of Quantum Scattering Theory
Section 12: ( PDF ) Scattering in three dimensions
Section 13: ( PDF ) Further Concepts in Quantum Scattering Theory
Section 14: ( PDF ) Using Partial Waves
Section 15: ( PDF ) The quantum mechanics nobody really understands
For non-examinable interest, and of use in some optional courses, some fuller details about partial waves and Relativistic Quantum Mechanics. Partial Waves Klein-Gordon; Dirac; More Dirac
Synopsis and revision guide: ( PDF ) Things to know in May

Exercises

Sheet 1: ( PDF ) Mainly revision
Sheet 2: ( PDF ) Perturbations
Sheet 3: ( PDF ) More Perturbations
Sheet 4: ( PDF ) Time Dependence
Sheet 5: ( PDF ) Variational Method
Sheet 6: ( PDF ) Time-Dependence and Pseudopotentials
Sheet 7: ( PDF ) Bonding and Identical Particles
Sheet 8: ( PDF ) Counting states
Sheet 9: ( PDF ) Scattering
Sheet 10: ( PDF ) Bell's Theorem and Bedtime Reading

Additional Exercises

( PDF )

alperbek / 1week-of-physics-learning-tutorial Goto Github PK

1week-of-physics-learning-tutorial's Introduction

Contents

What type of subject is physics?

Branches of physics

General concepts of physics

Basic principles of physics

Measurement

Motion

Overview

Concepts by field

Glossary of physics

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

Books

20 Physicists Who Revolutionised Our Understanding of The World

List of important publications in physics

Videos

Quantum Physics (Prof. Graeme Ackland)

Lecture Notes

Exercises

Additional Exercises

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